The Persian Wars
Since the time humans took their senses and realized that their hands could wield weapons and their brains could not only make the body function but also devise strategies, the possibility of war became certain. And that is exactly what happened. But the history of warfare is often seen through the lens of red blood. There were conquerors who were brutal, not born to rule but born to crush rebellions and force other rulers to surrender at their knees. Alexander the Great was one such example. During his Persian conquest, he did this against Darius III.
The greatest emperors of the two civilizations faced each other, and that clash is written decisively and descriptively in the Clash of the Titans book by Mundus Gnosis.
But for this article, let’s go through the feats he achieved during the Persian conquest.
The Greco-Persian Conflict Before Alexander
Before the birth of Alexander and his father Philip II, the Greco-Persian war was a constant happenings, the wars were not stopping and they kept going and going, Ionian Revolt, First Persian Invasion of Greece, Battle of Marathon, Second Persian Invasion of Greece, Battle of Thermopylae, Battle of Salamis, Battle of Plataea, Battle of Mycale, Delian League Conflicts… I mean there were several wars, But it was Philip & Alexander’s duo who shifted from Counter offensive to Attack mode.
Philip II & Persia
The Father Son Duo was famous in the ancient Macedonia. Philip II who was the father of Alexander the great, bought the glory to the Macedonia and before that, Macedonia was like a rogue state and it was Philip II, Who installed the fear of Macedonia in the heart of entire Greek. This move made him a fearsome leader and a king even in the eyes of Athens and Sparta.
But as for the Persian conquest is the concern, then Philip II of Macedonia did not engage directly in warfare with Persia before Alexander the Great’s campaigns. However, he laid the crucial groundwork for what would later become Alexander’s Persian conquest.
Philip’s most important action was his vision to unite the Greek states and lead a Pan-Hellenic military expedition against Persia. This plan was formalized through the League of Corinth, which Philip created after defeating the Greek city-states. The League recognized him as the Hegemon (leader) and granted him authority to lead a unified Greek military campaign into Asia against the Persian Empire.
Philip initiated diplomatic preparations and began mobilizing resources for this invasion, he was assassinated in 336 BCE before he could carry out the campaign. It was Alexander, his son, who inherited this mission and transformed it into one of the most successful military conquests in history.
Philip II’s Preparations and Legacy
Philip established the League of Corinth, a coalition of Greek states that pledged not only peace among themselves but also common cause under Philip’s command. The stated mission of the League was to wage war against Persia, avenging earlier Persian invasions of Greece and liberating Greek cities under Persian rule.
Philip’s preparations included more than diplomacy. He began organizing a strong and professional army, improving siege technologies, training cavalry, and building supply lines and strategic plans for Asia. His new military structure emphasized discipline and tactical flexibility, laying the military foundation that Alexander later used with astonishing success. Philip even sent an advance force to Asia Minor to begin operations and gather intelligence, indicating the seriousness and imminence of his campaign.
However, Philip was assassinated in 336 BCE before he could carry out the invasion himself. His legacy was more than the concept of the campaign—it was the full machinery of conquest handed down to his son. Alexander inherited a unified Greece, a trained army, a military plan, and a sense of Pan-Hellenic destiny to defeat Persia. In this way, Philip was the strategist and statesman behind the campaign that Alexander would bring to life.
Early Victories and the March Through Asia Minor
After the death of Philip II, Alexander controlled the Greece and the League of Corinth, but then he wanted to fulfill his ambition and he knew that there is only one way to do this, and that way was to go against the Persia. Persian Empire always fascinated Alexander. Now if you want to go through the journey about How alexander entered the Persian world, You need to go through our Codex, Clash of the Titans by Mundus Gnosis.
The Battle of Granicus River (334 BC)
The Battle of Granicus, fought in 334 BCE, was Alexander’s first major engagement against the Persian Empire and a critical test of his leadership. It took place near the banks of the Granicus River in Asia Minor, where a coalition of Persian satraps had assembled their forces, including cavalry and a substantial number of Greek mercenaries.
Alexander’s generals advised caution. The Persian army held the high ground across the river, and crossing under direct enemy fire was dangerous. But Alexander chose to attack immediately. Leading his cavalry himself, he entered the river at an angle to avoid the strongest current and aimed directly at the Persian left.
As Macedonian forces crossed, they were met with resistance, and the fighting turned into close combat on the riverbank. Alexander fought with determination and was nearly struck down, but his men protected him and continued pressing forward. Eventually, the Persian cavalry was pushed back, and the Macedonians turned their attention to the Greek mercenaries, who were isolated and overwhelmed.
Alexander’s treatment of the captured Greek mercenaries was severe. Seeing them as traitors who fought for Persia against their fellow Greeks, he ordered many of them killed and sent the survivors to forced labor in Macedonia. The outcome of the battle opened western Asia Minor to him, allowed several cities to surrender peacefully, and boosted his standing among both his troops and the Greek states.
Granicus was not the largest battle of the campaign, but it marked the beginning of Alexander’s invasion with a clear message: the war against Persia had truly begun. And he had no intention of retreating.
Consolidating Control in Asia Minor
After the dust of Granicus settled, Alexander did not rush forward blindly. He moved with purpose along the western edge of Asia Minor where the Persian presence had started to unravel. The satraps who had once governed these lands were either dead or in retreat and the region lay uncertain, caught between fear of rebellion and hope for change.
As Alexander approached Sardis, one of the most important Persian administrative centers, the city opened its gates. There was no siege and no bloodshed. The Persian commander surrendered, recognizing the reality that Persian power in the region had broken. Alexander respected the city’s decision and he left its local institutions largely intact and promised autonomy under Macedonian oversight. This would become a pattern.
City after city responded in different ways. In Miletus, resistance had to be met with force. Alexander’s army encircled the harbor and cut off escape and reinforcement. When Miletus fell, Alexander made sure the city was not destroyed. In contrast, Halicarnassus resisted fiercely and required a more sustained siege. Even then, Alexander allowed much of the population to remain once the city was secured.
But this was not just about battles. It was about building control that would last. Alexander replaced Persian-appointed rulers with governments that leaned on local customs and were loyal to him. Where necessary, he installed Macedonian garrisons and placed them under the command of men he trusted deeply. These forces kept order while Alexander continued his advance.
He also framed his campaign not only as conquest but as liberation, especially to the Greek-speaking cities of Ionia. He removed tyrants and encouraged local participation in governance because he knew that loyalty gained through respect was stronger than one taken by fear.
By the time he reached the southern coast, Alexander had done more than win battles. He had built a foundation and Asia Minor was no longer Persian. It was now the secure western flank of a campaign that was only beginning.
The Gordian Knot Legend
After securing control over Asia Minor, Alexander’s campaign paused at Gordium, a city that did not resist him and yet held a legacy far older than his own. His victories at Granicus and along the Ionian coast had broken Persian control in the west and as he moved inland, he encountered something different—not a city to conquer but a legend to confront.
At the heart of Gordium stood an ancient wagon tied with a knot so complex that no one had ever unraveled it. Local tradition held that whoever could untie the Gordian Knot would become ruler of all Asia. The knot had become more than rope because it was a symbol of fate and of the barrier between ambition and fulfillment.
Alexander approached it as he had approached everything since crossing into Asia, with clarity and decision. He examined the knot and tested it and saw that conventional effort would lead nowhere. Some said he found a hidden end and pulled the knot loose and others believed he simply cut through it with his sword. Either way, Alexander’s response was consistent with how he had dealt with Asia Minor: swift, practical, and unwilling to be bound by tradition for tradition’s sake.
This act did not gain him land or allegiance but it reinforced a pattern. Whether it was the surrender of Sardis or the siege at Halicarnassus or the challenge in Gordium, Alexander responded with action suited to each moment. In cutting or solving the knot, he did not just accept the prophecy but showed that his campaign would not wait for destiny to unfold and he would press forward and make it real.
Confronting Darius III and the Heart of the Persian Empire
The Battle of Issus (333 BC)
In the narrow plains near Issus, Alexander met Darius III’s army head-on. The tight space prevented the Persian numbers from spreading out and allowed Alexander’s disciplined forces to press through the center and force Darius to flee and leave the battlefield to Macedon.
The Siege of Tyre (332 BC)
Tyre stood offshore and refused to let Alexander enter. Rather than turn away, he ordered a causeway to be built across the sea and after months of resistance, his forces broke through the walls and Tyre fell, giving Alexander control of the coastal route toward Egypt.
Conquest of Egypt and the Founding of Alexandria
Alexander entered Egypt without facing battle and the people received him as a liberator from Persian rule. While there, he selected a coastal site west of the Nile and founded a new city named Alexandria that he intended to serve as a hub for trade, administration, and Greek culture.
The Decisive Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC)
On the plains of Gaugamela, Alexander faced the full strength of the Persian Empire. With careful planning, he broke through the Persian line and forced Darius to abandon the field once again and the battle ended any real challenge to Alexander’s advance into the heart of the empire.
Pursuit of Darius and the Fall of the Achaemenid Empire
Entering Persepolis and the Burning of the Palace
When Alexander arrived at Persepolis, the heart of Persian ceremonial power, the city opened its gates and offered no resistance. The wealth inside was immense and Alexander allowed his troops to take what they wished. Days later, during a gathering, a fire was set in the palace. Some believed it was a planned gesture to signal the fall of the Persian Empire and others thought it happened in the emotion of the moment. Alexander is said to have watched the flames in silence and the fire did not just consume stone and wood because it ended a chapter of history and marked his shift from invader to ruler.
The Death of Darius III
As Darius fled deeper into the eastern provinces, his support weakened and his own men, hoping to gain favor with Alexander or seize power themselves, turned on him. They captured and wounded him and left him to die along the roadside. When Alexander found the body, he ordered a royal burial according to Persian custom. He may not have known Darius personally but he understood the value of honoring a fallen king and in doing so, he positioned himself not only as the conqueror of Persia but also as the one who would preserve its dignity.
Campaigns in Central Asia and the Eastern Provinces
The lands beyond Persia were harder to tame and in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander met resistance not from great armies but from small and determined groups who knew the terrain well and did not yield easily. The campaigns were slow and demanding and rather than relying only on force, Alexander founded cities and built roads and brought local leaders into his circle. He even married into the local nobility and these were not just political choices because they were part of his attempt to hold a vast and diverse empire together by earning loyalty as much as enforcing it.
